ReviewA review of sexually transmitted bovine trichomoniasis and campylobacteriosis affecting cattle reproductive health
Introduction
The two bovine sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) discussed in this review are Tritrichomonas foetus (T foetus) and Campylobacter fetus (C fetus). Tritrichomonas foetus is an extracellular flagellated protozoan parasite that inhabits the prepuce of bulls and induces trichomoniasis. Campylobacter fetus is a gram-negative, motile, spiral or S-shaped bacterium (i.e., bovine vibriosis), which induces campylobacteriosis. There are two species of C fetus relevant in cattle health: C fetus subsp. fetus and C fetus subsp. venerealis [1], [2]. Campylobacter fetus venerealis, including the biotype intermedius, exclusively inhabits the genital tract of cattle and causes campylobacteriosis [1], [2], [3]. Generally, C fetus fetus inhabits the intestine but may migrate to the genital tract via an ascending genital infection or venereal route. The primary mode of transmission of T foetus and C fetus venerealis is coitus; however, they can survive in raw and processed bull semen, which makes them transmissible via artificial insemination (AI) [4], [5]. In bulls, T foetus and C fetus venerealis are usually clinically asymptomatic. However, adverse effects of T foetus and C fetus venerealis in cows are characterized by genital infection, which can cause abortion [5], [6], [7]. These STDs decrease productivity of cattle by inducing reproductive losses, reduced conception rates (from slightly subnormal to < 50%), reduced calf crops, increased days to conception, extended calving seasons, increased costs of replacement bulls, loss of genetic potential due to culling, and lighter weaning weights. In this regard, bovine trichomoniasis was reported to cause a prolonged breeding season, 5% to 12% reduction in weight gain during the sucking/growing period, 4% to 10% reduction in weaning weights, 4% to 10% reduction in monetary returns per calf born, 14% to 50% reduction in annual calf crop, and 5% to 35% reduction in financial returns per cow, compared to those exposed to a fertile bull [8].
Bovine STDs have an uneven distribution worldwide, with a high disease incidence in developing countries where cattle are bred predominantly by natural service. In contrast, in developed countries, these STDs are more likely to be endemic in beef herds that rely on natural service [9]. Recent studies have reported bulls infected with T foetus in herds from the following countries: United States of America [10], [11], [12], Argentina [13], Spain [14], [15], [16], Australia [17], and the Republic of Transkei [18]. Additionally, in the past decades, bulls infected with C fetus venerealis have been reported in the USA [19], Australia [17], Great Britain [20], Colombia [21], Tanzania [22], Nigeria [23], Canada [9], [24], Argentina [25], [26] and the Republic of Transkei [18]. There have been sporadic outbreaks of bovine abortions induced by C fetus venerealis in developing nations in Africa, Asia, and South America, as well as in developed countries in Europe, Oceania, and North America [9].
Currently, there are no global governmental monitoring programs to track the incidence and prevalence of bovine STDs. This lack of monitoring and reporting, in combination with inconsistent testing practices, has caused the worldwide cattle industry to underestimate the adverse effects of these STDs. For instance, several US states only require trichomoniasis testing in bulls aged greater than 18 months being sold through a public sale yard. However, these are only state regulations, not federal regulations. In general, there are no regulations requiring testing for bulls sold by private treaty or those resident in privately owned herds. In many cases, the cattle industry has inadequate veterinary oversight and a lack of laboratory facilities for routine testing. Collectively, all of these factors increase the prevalence and transmission of bovine STDs. This review addresses the current status of knowledge for bovine STDs, useful for research and clinical theriogenologists, and encourages new investigation by highlighting gaps and knowledge deficiencies.
Section snippets
Tritrichomonas foetus in bulls
Tritrichomonas foetus persistently and asymptomatically colonizes the epithelium of the prepuce, penis, and occasionally the urethral orifice of bulls. In one study, T foetus was cultured in smegma collected from the preputial and penile epithelial surfaces in 24 bulls infected with T foetus (15 naturally and 9 experimentally), whereas only four of those 24 bulls had positive cultures collected from the urethral orifice [27]. In another study, 24 bulls (2–6 years old) were naturally infected
C fetus venerealis in bulls
Campylobacter fetus venerealis persistently and asymptomatically colonizes the epithelium of the prepuce and penis of bulls. In one study, C fetus venerealis was identified by immunofluorescence on impression smears and epithelial scrapings of the prepuce and penis in six of six bulls (5.5–12 years old); although five were carriers (smegma was culture positive), only one of those bulls had distal urethra colonization [33]. On the basis of immunofluorescent studies conducted on tissue sections,
T foetus in cows
In contrast to bulls, infection with T foetus in cows provokes genital inflammation, including cervicitis and endometritis [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43]. In pregnant cows, fetal death occurs in the first trimester [39] or later [7]. In one experimental study, genital inflammation and pregnancy loss occurred after 7 weeks of infection [39]. Moreover, cows infected with T foetus induced a detectable antigen-specific antibody response in the vagina. Intravaginal inoculation of nonpregnant
C fetus venerealis in cows
Natural infection with C fetus venerealis in cows is associated with reproductive failure, irregular estrus, transient infertility, and in pregnant cows, embryonic or fetal death [26], [34], [52], [53], [54], [55]. Moreover, experimental intrauterine and cervicovaginal infection with C fetus venerealis in cows provoked varying grades of genital inflammation, including vaginitis, cervicitis, endometritis, and salpingitis [56]. In contrast to bulls, genital infection with C fetus venerealis in
Diagnosis of bovine STDs
Trichomoniasis and campylobacteriosis are usually diagnosed using cell culture and/or polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The most efficient method of sampling vaginal and preputial secretions is insertion of an insemination/infusion pipette inside the vaginal fornix or preputial cavity and performing short strokes while concurrently aspirating secretions [60]. The body cavity can be washed with PBS to recover more organisms, although this can dilute the sample. Alternatively, preputial secretions
Vaccination and management
Currently, there is no effective standardized or legal treatment for T foetus–infected cattle. Although there has been some success with nitroimidazole drugs, none are currently licensed for use in cattle. Antibiotic treatments for C fetus venerealis are impractical and have limited efficacy. In the absence of effective treatment options, bovine STDs are largely controlled by diagnostic testing, reporting, and culling of infected animals. For instance, the control program implemented by the
Conclusions
The bovine STDs, trichomoniasis, and campylobacteriosis remain endemic and prevalent mostly in beef cattle causing mild to severe reproductive losses. To effectively diagnose and treat affected cattle, a combination of serial cultures and PCR testing is necessary to establish pathogen identity. In the diagnosis of trichomoniasis or campylobacteriosis, testing methods have not been streamlined to encourage consistent use by the livestock industry. Owing to the lack of efficient testing methods
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the funding support from Alberta Livestock and Meat Agency Ltd. (ALMA) 2015B008R, Canada and the National Scientific and Technical Research Council PICT 2013-0393, Argentina (Spanish: Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, CONICET).
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